পাথরের যন্ত্র: সংশোধিত সংস্করণের মধ্যে পার্থক্য
নতুন পৃষ্ঠা: {{Distinguish|যন্ত্র পাথর}} {{পাথর Age|245}} একটি'''পাথরের যন্ত্র''' হচ্ছে সাধার... |
(কোনও পার্থক্য নেই)
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১৯:০৬, ১২ ফেব্রুয়ারি ২০১৭ তারিখে সংশোধিত সংস্করণ
একটিপাথরের যন্ত্র হচ্ছে সাধারণ বিবেচনায় যেকোনো ধরনের যন্ত্র যা আংশিক বা পুরপুরি ভাবে পাথর দিয়ে তৈরি। যদিও পাথরের যন্ত্রের উপর নির্ভর করে এমন অনেক সমাজ এবং সংস্কৃতি এখনও পাওয়া যায় বেশিরভাগ পাথরের যন্ত্র প্রাগৈতিহাসিক বিশেষ করে প্রস্তর যুগের সংস্কৃতি যা বিলুপ্তপ্রায়। Archaeologists often study such প্রাগৈতিহাসিক societies, and refer to the study of পাথরের যন্ত্রs as lithic analysis. Ethnoarchaeology has been একটিvaluable research field in order to further the understanding and cultural implications of পাথরের যন্ত্র use and manufacture.[১]
পাথর has been used to make একটিwide variety of different যন্ত্রs throughout history, including arrow heads, spearpoints and querns. পাথরের যন্ত্রs may be made of either ground পাথর or chipped পাথর, and একটিperson who creates যন্ত্রs out of the latter is known as একটিflintknapper.
Chipped পাথরের যন্ত্রs are made from cryptocrystalline materials such as chert or flint, radiolarite, chalcedony, obsidian, basalt, and quartzite viএকটিএকটিprocess known as lithic reduction. One simple form of reduction is to strike পাথর flakes from একটিnucleus (core) of material using একটিhammerপাথর or similar hard hammer fabricator. If the goal of the reduction strategy is to produce flakes, the remnant lithic core may be discarded once it has become too small to use. In some strategies, however, একটিflintknapper reduces the core to একটিrough unifacial or bifacial preform, which is further reduced using soft hammer flaking techniques or by pressure flaking the edges.
More complex forms of reduction include the production of highly standardized blades, which can then be fashioned into একটিvariety of যন্ত্রs such as scrapers, knives, sickles and microliths. In general terms, chipped পাথরের যন্ত্রs are nearly ubiquitous in all pre-metal-using societies because they are easily manufactured, the যন্ত্র পাথর is usually plentiful, and they are easy to transport and sharpen.
বিবর্তন
Archaeologists classify পাথরের যন্ত্রs into industries (also known as complexes or technocomplexes[২]) that share distinctive technological or morphological characteristics.[৩]
In 1969 in the 2nd edition of World Prehistory, Grahame Clark proposed an evolutionary progression of flint-knapping in which the "dominant lithic technologies" occurred in একটিfixed sequence from Mode 1 through Mode 5.[৪] He assigned to them relative dates: Modes 1 and 2 to the Lower Palaeolithic, 3 to the Middle Palaeolithic, 4 to the Advanced and 5 to the Mesolithic. They were not to be conceived, however, as either universal—that is, they did not account for all lithic technology; or as synchronous—they were not in effect in different regions simultaneously. Mode 1, for example, was in use in Europe long after it had been replaced by Mode 2 in Africa.
Clarke's scheme was adopted enthusiastically by the archaeological community. One of its advantages was the simplicity of terminology; for example, the Mode 1 / Mode 2 Transition. The transitions are currently of greatest interest. Consequently, in the literature the পাথরের যন্ত্রs used in the period of the Palaeolithic are divided into four "modes", each of which designate একটিdifferent form of complexity, and which in most cases followed একটিrough chronological order.
প্রাক পর্ব I
- Kenya
পাথরের যন্ত্রs found from 2011 to 2014 at Lake Turkana in Kenya, are dated to be 3.3 million years old, and predate the genus Homo by half million years. The oldest known Homo fossil is 2.8 million years old compared to the 3.3 million year old পাথরের যন্ত্রs.[৫] The পাথরের যন্ত্রs may have been made by Australopithecus afarensis —also called Kenyanthropus playtops— (একটি3.2 to 3.5-million-year-old Pliocene hominin fossil discovered in 1999) the species whose best fossil example is Lucy, which inhabited East Africএকটিat the same time as the date of the oldest পাথরের যন্ত্রs.[৬][৭][৮][৯][১০] Dating of the যন্ত্রs was by dating volcanic ash layers in which the যন্ত্রs were found and dating the magnetic signature (pointing north or south due to reversal of the magnetic poles) of the rock at the site.[১১]
- Ethiopia
Grooved, cut and fractured animal bone fossils, made by using পাথরের যন্ত্রs, were found in Dikika, Ethiopia near (200 yards) the remains of Selam, একটিyoung Australopithecus afarensis girl who lived about 3.3 million years ago.[১২][১৩]
পর্ব I: অল্ডোওয়ান শিল্প
The earliest পাথরের যন্ত্রs in the life span of the genus Homo are Mode 1 যন্ত্রs,[১৪] and come from what has been termed the Oldowan Industry, named after the type of site (many sites, actually) found in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, where they were discovered in large quantities. Oldowan যন্ত্রs were characterised by their simple construction, predominantly using core forms. These cores were river pebbles, or rocks similar to them, that had been struck by একটিspherical hammerপাথর to cause conchoidal fractures removing flakes from one surface, creating an edge and often একটিsharp tip. The blunt end is the proximal surface; the sharp, the distal. Oldowan is একটিpercussion technology. Grasping the proximal surface, the hominid brought the distal surface down hard on an object he wished to detach or shatter, such as একটিbone or tuber.
The earliest known Oldowan যন্ত্রs yet found date from 2.6 million years ago, during the Lower Palaeolithic period, and have been uncovered at Gona in Ethiopia.[১৫] After this date, the Oldowan Industry subsequently spread throughout much of Africa, although archaeologists are currently unsure which Hominan species first developed them, with some speculating that it was Australopithecus garhi, and others believing that it was in fact Homo habilis.[১৬] Homo habilis was the hominin who used the যন্ত্রs for most of the Oldowan in Africa, but at about 1.9-1.8 million years ago Homo erectus inherited them. The Industry flourished in southern and eastern Africএকটিbetween 2.6 and 1.7 million years ago, but was also spread out of Africএকটিand into Eurasia by travelling bands of H. erectus, who took it as far east as Java by 1.8 million years ago and Northern China by 1.6 million years ago.
পর্ব II: আচিউলিয়ান শিল্প
Eventually, more complex, Mode 2 যন্ত্রs began to be developed through the Acheulean Industry, named after the site of Saint-Acheul in France. The Acheulean was characterised not by the core, but by the biface, the most notable form of which was the hand axe.[১৭] The Acheulean first appears in the archaeological record as early as 1.7 million years ago in the West Turkana areএকটিof Kenya and contemporaneously in southern Africa.
The Leakeys, excavators at Olduvai, defined একটি"Developed Oldowan" Period in which they believed they saw evidence of an overlap in Oldowan and Acheulean. In their species-specific view of the two industries, Oldowan equated to H. habilis and Acheulean to H. erectus. Developed Oldowan was assigned to habilis and Acheulean to erectus. Subsequent dates on H. erectus pushed the fossils back to well before Acheulean যন্ত্রs; that is, H. erectus must have initially used Mode 1. There was no reason to think, therefore, that Developed Oldowan had to be habilis; it could have been erectus. Opponents of the view divide Developed Oldowan between Oldowan and Acheulean. There is no question, however, that habilis and erectus coexisted, as habilis fossils are found as late as 1.4 million years ago. Meanwhile, African H. erectus developed Mode 2. In any case একটিwave of Mode 2 then spread across Eurasia, resulting in use of both there. H. erectus may not have been the only hominin to leave Africa; European fossils are sometimes associated with Homo ergaster, একটিcontemporary of H. erectus in Africa.
In contrast to an Oldowan যন্ত্র, which is the result of একটিfortuitous and probably ex tempore operation to obtain one sharp edge on একটিপাথর, an Acheulean যন্ত্র is একটিplanned result of একটিmanufacturing process. The manufacturer begins with একটিblank, either একটিlarger পাথর or একটিslab knocked off একটিlarger rock. From this blank he or she removes large flakes, to be used as cores. Standing একটিcore on edge on an anvil পাথর, he or she hits the exposed edge with centripetal blows of একটিhard hammer to roughly shape the implement. Then he or she works it over again, or retouches it, with একটিsoft hammer of wood or bone to produce একটিযন্ত্র finely chipped all over consisting of two convex surfaces intersecting in একটিsharp edge. Such একটিযন্ত্র is used for slicing; concussion would destroy the edge and cut the hand.
Some Mode 2 যন্ত্রs are disk-shaped, others ovoid, others leaf-shaped and pointed, and others elongated and pointed at the distal end, with একটিblunt surface at the proximal end, obviously used for drilling. Mode 2 যন্ত্রs are used for butchering; not being composite (having no haft) they are not very appropriate killing instruments. The killing must have been done some other way. Mode 2 যন্ত্রs are larger than Oldowan. The blank was ported to serve as an ongoing source of flakes until it was finally retouched as একটিfinished যন্ত্র itself. Edges were often sharpened by further retouching.
পর্ব III: মাওস্তেরিয়ান শিল্প
Eventually, the Acheulean in Europe was replaced by একটিlithic technology known as the Mousterian Industry, which was named after the site of Le Moustier in France, where examples were first uncovered in the 1860s. Evolving from the Acheulean, it adopted the Levallois technique to produce smaller and sharper knife-like যন্ত্রs as well as scrapers.[১৮] The Mousterian Industry was developed and used primarily by the Neanderthals, একটিnative European and Middle Eastern hominin species.[১৯]
পর্ব IV: অরিগ্নাসিয়ান শিল্প
The long blades (rather than flakes) of the Upper Palaeolithic Mode 4 industries appeared during the Upper Palaeolithic between 50,000 and 10,000 years ago.[২০] The Aurignacian culture is একটিgood example of mode 4 যন্ত্র production.[২১]
পর্ব V: মাইক্রলিথিক শিল্প
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Mode 5 পাথরের যন্ত্রs involve the production of microliths, which were used in composite যন্ত্রs, mainly fastened to একটিhaft.[২২] Examples include the Magdalenian culture. Such একটিtechnology makes much more efficient use of available materials like flint, although required greater skill in manufacturing the small flakes.
নিও লিথিক শিল্প
Click to see individual images.
In প্রাগৈতিহাসিক Japan, ground পাথরের যন্ত্রs appear during the Japanese Paleolithic period, that lasted from around 40,000 BC to 14,000 BC.[২৩] Elsewhere, ground পাথরের যন্ত্রs became important during the Neolithic period beginning about 10,000 BC. These ground or polished implements are manufactured from larger-grained materials such as basalt, jade and jadeite, greenপাথর and some forms of rhyolite which are not suitable for flaking. The greenপাথর industry was important in the English Lake District, and is known as the Langdale axe industry. Ground পাথর implements included adzes, celts, and axes, which were manufactured using একটিlabour-intensive, time-consuming method of repeated grinding against an abrasive পাথর, often using water as একটিlubricant. Because of their coarse surfaces, some ground পাথরের যন্ত্রs were used for grinding plant foods and were polished not just by intentional shaping, but also by use. Manos are hand পাথরs used in conjunction with metates for grinding corn or grain. Polishing increased the intrinsic mechanical strength of the axe. Polished পাথর axes were important for the widespread clearance of woods and forest during the Neolithic period, when crop and livestock farming developed on একটিlarge scale. They are distributed very widely and were traded over great distances since the best rock types were often very local. They also became venerated objects, and were frequently buried in long barrows or round barrows with their former owners.
During the Neolithic period, large axes were made from flint nodules by chipping একটিrough shape, একটিso-called "rough-out". Such products were traded across একটিwide area. The rough-outs were then polished to give the surface একটিfine finish to create the axe head. Polishing not only increased the final strength of the product but also meant that the head could penetrate wood more easily.
There were many sources of supply, including Grimes Graves in Suffolk, Cissbury in Sussex and Spiennes near Mons in Belgium to mention but একটিfew. In Britain, there were numerous small quarries in downland areas where flint was removed for local use, for example.
Many other rocks were used to make axes from পাথরs, including the Langdale axe industry as well as numerous other sites such as Penmaenmawr and Tievebulliagh in Co Antrim, Ulster. In Langdale, there many outcrops of the greenপাথর were exploited, and knapped where the পাথর was extracted. The sites exhibit piles of waste flakes, as well as rejected rough-outs. Polishing improved the mechanical strength of the যন্ত্রs, so increasing their life and effectiveness. Many other যন্ত্রs were developed using the same techniques. Such products were traded across the country and abroad.
আধুনিক ব্যাবহার
The invention of the flintlock gun mechanism in the sixteenth century produced একটিdemand for specially shaped gunflints.[২৪] It was issued to the U.S. Army as the Model 1819 Hall Breech Loading Rifle.[২৫] The gunflint industry survived until the middle of the twentieth century in some places, including in the English town of Brandon.[২৬]
For specialist purposes glass knives are still made and used today, particularly for cutting thin sections for electron microscopy in একটিtechnique known as microtomy. Freshly cut blades are always used since the sharpness of the edge is very great. These knives are made from high-quality manufactured glass, however, not from natural raw materials such as chert or obsidian. Surgical knives made from obsidian are still used in some delicate surgeries.[২৭]
পাথরের যন্ত্র
In archaeology, একটিযন্ত্র পাথর is একটিtype of পাথর that is used to manufacture পাথরের যন্ত্রs. Alternatively, the term can be used to refer to পাথরs used as the raw material for যন্ত্রs.
আরও দেখুন
- Chaîne opératoire
- Eccentric flint (archaeology)
- Flint
- Knapping
- Langdale axe industry
- Lithic technology
- Manuport
- Mount William পাথর axe quarry
- Prismatic blade
References
- ↑ Sillitoe, P. and K. Hardy 2003 Living lithics: ethnoarchaeology in highland PapuএকটিNew Guinea. Antiquity 77:555-566
- ↑ Clarke, David (১৯৭৮)। Analytical Archaeology (2nd সংস্করণ)। New York, NY: ColumbiএকটিUniversity Press। পৃষ্ঠা 372–373। আইএসবিএন 0231046308।
- ↑ Kadowaki, Seiji (২০১৩)। "Issues of Chronological and Geographical Distributions of Middle and Upper Palaeolithic Cultural Variability in the Levant and Implications for the Learning Behaviour of Neanderthals and Homo sapiens"। Akazawa, Takeru; Nishiaki, Yoshihiro; Aoki, Kenichi। Dynamics of Learning in Neanderthals and Modern Humans Volume 1: Cultural Perspectives। Tokyo: Springer। পৃষ্ঠা 62–63। আইএসবিএন 9784431545118।
- ↑ Clarke, Grahame (১৯৬৯)। World Prehistory: একটিNew Outline (2 সংস্করণ)। Cambridge: Cambridge University Press। পৃষ্ঠা 31।
- ↑ Morelle, Rebeccএকটি (২০ মে ২০১৫)। "Oldest পাথরের যন্ত্রs pre-date earliest humans"। BBC News। সংগ্রহের তারিখ ২০১৬-০১-০৩।
- ↑ Drake, Nadia; 20, for National Geographic PUBLISHED May। "Wrong Turn Leads to Discovery of Oldest পাথরের যন্ত্রs"। National Geographic News। সংগ্রহের তারিখ ২০১৫-০৫-২১।
- ↑ Harmand, Sonia; Lewis, Jason E.; Feibel, Craig S.; Lepre, Christopher J.; Prat, Sandrine; Lenoble, Arnaud; Boës, Xavier; Quinn, RhondএকটিL.; Brenet, Michel (মে ২১, ২০১৫)। "3.3-million-year-old পাথরের যন্ত্রs from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya"। Nature। 521 (7552): 310–315। আইএসএসএন 0028-0836। ডিওআই:10.1038/nature14464।
- ↑ Thompson, Helen। "The Oldest পাথরের যন্ত্রs Yet Discovered Are Unearthed in Kenya"। সংগ্রহের তারিখ ২০১৫-০৫-২১।
- ↑ Wilford, John Noble (২০১৫-০৫-২০)। "পাথরের যন্ত্রs From KenyএকটিAre Oldest Yet Discovered"। The New York Times। আইএসএসএন 0362-4331। সংগ্রহের তারিখ ২০১৫-০৫-৩০।
- ↑ "Oldest Known পাথরের যন্ত্রs Discovered: 3.3 Million Years Old"। video.nationalgeographic.com। সংগ্রহের তারিখ ২০১৫-০৬-১৫।
- ↑ "Nature Index"। www.natureindex.com। সংগ্রহের তারিখ ২০১৬-০৪-০৫।
- ↑ Shannon P. McPherron; Zeresenay Alemseged; Curtis W. Marean; Jonathan G. Wynn; Denné Reed; Denis Geraads; René Bobe; Hamdallah A. Béarat (২০১০)। "Evidence for পাথর-যন্ত্র-assisted Consumption of Animal Tissues before 3.39 Million Years Ago at Dikika, Ethiopiএকটি"। Nature। 466 (7308): 857–860। ডিওআই:10.1038/nature09248। পিএমআইডি 20703305।
- ↑ "Scientists Discover Oldest Evidence of পাথরের যন্ত্র Use and Meat-Eating Among Human Ancestors"। সংগ্রহের তারিখ ২৭ নভেম্বর ২০১৩।
- ↑ Clarke's "chopper যন্ত্রs and flakes."
- ↑ Semaw, S.; M. J. Rogers; J. Quade; P. R. Renne; R. F. Butler; M. Domínguez-Rodrigo; D. Stout; W. S. Hart; T. Pickering; S. W. Simpson (২০০৩)। "2.6-Million-year-old পাথরের যন্ত্রs and associated bones from OGS-6 and OGS-7, Gona, Afar, Ethiopiএকটি"। Journal of Human Evolution। 45: 169–177। ডিওআই:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00093-9। পিএমআইডি 14529651।
- ↑ Toth, Nicholas; Schick, Kathy (২০০৯), "African Origins", Scarre, Chris, The Human Past: World Prehistory and the Development of Human Societies (2nd সংস্করণ), London: Thames and Hudson, পৃষ্ঠা 67–68
- ↑ Clarke's "bifacially flaked hand axes."
- ↑ Clarke's "flake যন্ত্রs from prepared cores."
- ↑ Pettitt, Paul (২০০৯), "The Rise of Modern Humans", Scarre, Chris, The Human Past: World Prehistory and the Development of Human Societies (2nd সংস্করণ), London: Thames and Hudson, পৃষ্ঠা 149–151
- ↑ Lewin, R.; Foley, R. A. (২০০৪)। Principles of Human Evolution (2 সংস্করণ)। UK: Blackwell Science। পৃষ্ঠা 311। আইএসবিএন 0-632-04704-6।
- ↑ Clarke's "punch-struck blades with steep retouch."
- ↑ Clarke's "microlithic components of composite artifacts."
- ↑ "প্রাগৈতিহাসিক Japan, New perspectives on insular East Asia", Keiji Imamura, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, ISBN 0-8248-1853-9
- ↑ Flayderman, 1998
- ↑ Flayderman, 1998
- ↑ Clarke, R (1935), The Flint-knapping Industry at Brandon, Antiquity, vol. IX
- ↑ name=autogenerated1 Glass Knife Making
External links
- Michaels, George H.; Fagan, Brian M. (১৯৯০–১৯৯৮)। "Principles of Lithic Technology"। University of Californiএকটি। সংগ্রহের তারিখ ২২ জানুয়ারি ২০১১।
- Gunness, Jo Lynn (১৯৯৮)। "Lithic Technologies Notes"। University of Hawaii Anthropology Department। সংগ্রহের তারিখ ২২ জানুয়ারি ২০১১।
- Prindle, Tarএকটি (১৯৯৪–২০১১)। "Flaked পাথরের যন্ত্র Technology"। Nativetech.org। সংগ্রহের তারিখ ২২ জানুয়ারি ২০১১।
- "Typology"। পাথর Age Reference Collection (SARC), University of Oslo। সংগ্রহের তারিখ ২২ জানুয়ারি ২০১১।
- "পাথরের যন্ত্রs of Texas Indians"। Texas Beyond History, University of Texas at Austin। ২০০১। সংগ্রহের তারিখ ১৮ জানুয়ারি ২০১১।
- Prindle, Tar (১৯৯৪–২০১১)। "Common পাথর Types and Northeastern Lithic Technologies"। Nativetech.org। সংগ্রহের তারিখ ১৮ জানুয়ারি ২০১১।
- Grace, Roger। "Interpreting the Function of পাথরের যন্ত্রs"। পাথর Age Reference Collection (SARC), University of Oslo। সংগ্রহের তারিখ ১৮ জানুয়ারি ২০১১।
- "How to recognize প্রাগৈতিহাসিক পাথরের যন্ত্রs"। newarchaeology.com। সংগ্রহের তারিখ ১৮ জানুয়ারি ২০১১।
- "The World Museum of Man and Prehistory"। World Museum of Man। ২০০৪–২০১১। সংগ্রহের তারিখ ১৮ জানুয়ারি ২০১১।
Beach, Chandler B., সম্পাদক (১৯১৪)। "Flint-Implements"। The New Student's Reference Work। Chicago: F. E. Compton and Co।
