জাতীয়তা: সংশোধিত সংস্করণের মধ্যে পার্থক্য
সম্পাদনা সারাংশ নেই |
সম্পাদনা সারাংশ নেই |
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| ২ নং লাইন: | ২ নং লাইন: | ||
{{Conflict of laws}} |
{{Conflict of laws}} |
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''' জাতীয়তা''' একজন ব্যাক্তি এবং [[স্বাধীন রাষ্ট্র|রাষ্ট্র]] এর মধ্যে <ref name="Vonk2012">{{cite book|last=Vonk|first=Olivier|title=Dual |
''' জাতীয়তা''' একজন ব্যাক্তি এবং [[স্বাধীন রাষ্ট্র|রাষ্ট্র]] এর মধ্যে <ref name="Vonk2012">{{cite book|last=Vonk|first=Olivier|title=Dual নাগরিকতা in the European Union: A Study on Changing Norms in Public and Private International Law and in the Municipal Laws of Four EU Member States|date=March 19, 2012|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=90-04-22720-2|pages=19–20}}</ref> আইন গত সম্পর্ক। জাতীয়তা রাষ্ট্রকে বাক্তির উপর আইনগত অধিকার এনে দেয় এবং ব্যাক্তিকে এনে দেয় রাষ্ট্রের সুরক্ষা। এসব অধিকার এবং দায়িত্ব কি তার তারতম্য ঘটে রাষ্ট্র থেকে রাষ্ট্রে।<ref name="Weis1979">Weis, Paul. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hSLGDXqXeegC&pg=PA29 নাগরিকতা and Statelessness in International Law]''. BRILL; 1979 [cited 19 August 2012]. ISBN 9789028603295. p. 29–61.</ref> |
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[[আন্তর্জাতিক প্রথাগত আইন|প্রথা]] এবং আন্তর্জাতিক রীতি অনুযায়ী, এটি প্রত্যেক রাষ্ট্রের অধিকার যা নিরধারন করে কারা সেই রাষ্ট্রের জাতি হবে ।<ref>[http://eudo-citizenship.eu/InternationalDB/docs/Convention%20on%20certain%20questions%20relating%20to%20the%20conflict%20of% |
[[আন্তর্জাতিক প্রথাগত আইন|প্রথা]] এবং আন্তর্জাতিক রীতি অনুযায়ী, এটি প্রত্যেক রাষ্ট্রের অধিকার যা নিরধারন করে কারা সেই রাষ্ট্রের জাতি হবে ।<ref>[http://eudo-citizenship.eu/InternationalDB/docs/Convention%20on%20certain%20questions%20relating%20to%20the%20conflict%20of%20নাগরিকতা%20laws%20FULL%20TEXT.pdf Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of নাগরিকতা Laws]. The Hague, 12 April 1930. Full text. Article 1, "It is for each State to determine under its own law who are its nationals...".</ref> এই নির্দেশক গুলো [[জাতীয়তা আইনের]] অংশ. কিছু ক্ষেত্রে জাতীয়তার নির্দেশক গুলোও নিয়ন্ত্রিত হয় [[সরকারী আন্তর্জাতিক আইন]] দারা— উধাহরনস্বরূপ,[[রাষ্ট্রহীনতা]]র উপর [[চুক্তি|চুক্তিপত্র]] এবং [[জাতীয়তার বিষয়ক ইউরোপীয় সম্মেলন,(European Convention on নাগরিকতা)]]। |
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জাতীয়তা, [[নাগরিকতা]] থেকে কারিগরি এবং আইনগত ভাবে পৃথক, যা বাক্তি এবং দেশের মধ্যে পৃথক ধরনের আইনগত সম্পর্ক।''জাতীয়তা'' বিশেষ্য পদটি উভয় নাগরিক এবং অনাগরিককে বোঝাতে পারে । নাগরিকের সবচেয়ে সাধারন পার্থক্যকারি বৈশিষ্ট্য হচ্ছে নাগরিক রাষ্ট্রের [[রাজনীতি|রাজনৈতিক]] জীবনে অনশগ্রহন করতে পারে, যেমন [[ভোট]] দেয়ার মাধ্যমে অথবা [[প্রার্থী|নিরবাচনে প্রতিযোগিতা করে]]. যাইহোক, আধুনিক দেশে সকল জাতিই রাষ্ট্রের নাগরিক এবং পূর্ণ নাগরিকরা রাষ্ট্রের জাতি। <ref name="Vonk2012" /><ref name="Kadelbach" /> |
জাতীয়তা, [[নাগরিকতা]] থেকে কারিগরি এবং আইনগত ভাবে পৃথক, যা বাক্তি এবং দেশের মধ্যে পৃথক ধরনের আইনগত সম্পর্ক।''জাতীয়তা'' বিশেষ্য পদটি উভয় নাগরিক এবং অনাগরিককে বোঝাতে পারে । নাগরিকের সবচেয়ে সাধারন পার্থক্যকারি বৈশিষ্ট্য হচ্ছে নাগরিক রাষ্ট্রের [[রাজনীতি|রাজনৈতিক]] জীবনে অনশগ্রহন করতে পারে, যেমন [[ভোট]] দেয়ার মাধ্যমে অথবা [[প্রার্থী|নিরবাচনে প্রতিযোগিতা করে]]. যাইহোক, আধুনিক দেশে সকল জাতিই রাষ্ট্রের নাগরিক এবং পূর্ণ নাগরিকরা রাষ্ট্রের জাতি। <ref name="Vonk2012" /><ref name="Kadelbach" /> |
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ইংরেজি এবং কিছু অন্য ভাষাতে,''জাতীয়তা'' শব্দটিকে ব্যাবহার করা হয় [[জাতিগত গোষ্ঠী]] নির্দেশ করার জন্য। (মানুষের একটি দল যারা একই জাতিয় পরিচিতি, ভাষা, সংস্কৃতি, ইতিহাস এবং আরও অনেক কিছু ভাগাভাগি করে। |
ইংরেজি এবং কিছু অন্য ভাষাতে,''জাতীয়তা'' শব্দটিকে ব্যাবহার করা হয় [[জাতিগত গোষ্ঠী]] নির্দেশ করার জন্য। (মানুষের একটি দল যারা একই জাতিয় পরিচিতি, ভাষা, সংস্কৃতি, ইতিহাস এবং আরও অনেক কিছু ভাগাভাগি করে। জাতীয়তার এই সংজ্ঞাটি রাজনৈতিক সীমানা বা পাসপোর্ট মালিকানার ভিত্তিতে দেয়া হয় নি এবং যেসব জাতির স্বাধীন রাষ্ট্র নেই (যেমন স্কট, ওয়েলস, ইংলিশ, কুরদ, তামিল, শিখ ইত্যাদি ) তাদেরকেউ অন্তর্ভুক্ত করে। {{fact|date=April 2016}} |
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যারা বড় কোন সরকার থেকে স্বায়ত্তশাসন এর ক্ষমতা অর্জন করেছে তাদেরকেউ নাগরিক বলা যেতে পারে। |
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Individuals may also be considered nationals of groups with [[autonomous administrative division|autonomous status]] which [[devolution|have ceded some power]] to a larger government. |
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== আন্তর্জাতিক আইন == |
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== International law == |
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আন্তর্জাতিক আইনে জাতীয়তা হচ্ছে একটি অবস্থা অথবা সম্পর্ক যা একটি জাতিকে পৃথক একটি জাতি থেকে রক্ষা করার অধিকার প্রদান করে।<ref name=Kadelbach /> কূটনীতিক এবং অধিনায়কীয় সুরক্ষা নির্ভর করে ব্যাক্তি এবং রাষ্ট্রের এই সম্পর্কের উপর।<ref name="Kadelbach">{{cite book|last1=Kadelbach |first1=Stefan |editor1-last=Ehlers|editor1-first=Dirk |title=European Fundamental Rights and Freedoms |chapter=Part V: Citizenship Rights in Europe |date=2007|publisher=De Gruyter Recht |location=Berlin|isbn=9783110971965|pages=547–548|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BHep8q-OxboC&pg=PA547}}</ref> একজন ব্যাক্তির নাগরিকতার এই অবস্থা একটি দেশের আইনের সংঘাতের সমস্যার সমাধান করে।<ref name="Bast" /> |
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নাগরিকতা এমন একটি অবস্থা যা একটি জাতিকে কোন ব্যাক্তি উপর অধিকার প্রদান ঈবং বিধি নিষেধ প্রদান করে।<ref name=Kadelbach /> In most cases, no rights or obligations are automatically attached to this status, although the status is a necessary precondition for any rights and obligations created by the state.<ref name=Bast>{{cite book |editor1-last= von Bogdandy|editor1-first=Armin|editor2-last=Bast|editor2-first=Jürgen |title=Principles of European Constitutional Law.|date=2009|publisher=Hart Pub.|location=Oxford|isbn=9781847315502|pages=449–451|edition=2nd}}</ref> |
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Within the broad limits imposed by few treaties and international law, states may freely define who their nationals are and are not.<ref name=Kadelbach /> However, since the [[Nottebohm case|''Nottebohm'' case]], other states are only required to respect their claim to protect an alleged national if the |
Within the broad limits imposed by few treaties and international law, states may freely define who their nationals are and are not.<ref name=Kadelbach /> However, since the [[Nottebohm case|''Nottebohm'' case]], other states are only required to respect their claim to protect an alleged national if the নাগরিকতা is based on a true social bond.<ref name=Kadelbach /> In the case of dual নাগরিকতা, states may determine the most effective নাগরিকতা for a person, to determine which state's laws are most relevant.<ref name="Bast" /> There are also limits on removing a person's status as a national. Article 15 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] states that "Everyone has the right to a নাগরিকতা," and "No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his নাগরিকতা nor denied the right to change his নাগরিকতা." |
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== National law == |
== National law == |
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Nationals normally have the [[right of return|right to enter or return]] to the country they belong to. [[Passports]] are issued to nationals of a state, rather than only to citizens, because the passport is the travel document used to enter the country. However, nationals may not have the [[right of abode]] (the right to live permanently) in the countries that grant them passports. |
Nationals normally have the [[right of return|right to enter or return]] to the country they belong to. [[Passports]] are issued to nationals of a state, rather than only to citizens, because the passport is the travel document used to enter the country. However, nationals may not have the [[right of abode]] (the right to live permanently) in the countries that grant them passports. |
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==নাগরিকতা versus citizenship== |
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নাগরিকতা is legally a distinct concept from citizenship. Conceptually, citizenship is focused on the internal political life of the state and নাগরিকতা is a matter of international dealings.<ref name="TurnerIsin2003">Turner, Bryan S; Isin, Engin F. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gtiZqLcJYZEC&pg=PA278 Handbook of Citizenship Studies]''. SAGE; 2003-01-29. ISBN 9780761968580. p. 278–279.</ref> |
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In the modern era, the concept of full citizenship encompasses not only active political rights, but full [[civil rights]] and [[social rights]].<ref name="Kadelbach" /> |
In the modern era, the concept of full citizenship encompasses not only active political rights, but full [[civil rights]] and [[social rights]].<ref name="Kadelbach" /> নাগরিকতা is a [[necessary and sufficient condition|necessary but not sufficient condition]] to exercise full political rights within a state or other [[polity]].<ref name="Vonk2012" /> নাগরিকতা is required for full citizenship, and some people have নাগরিকতা without having full citizenship. A person who is denied full rights is commonly called a [[second-class citizen]]. |
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Historically, the most significant difference between a national and a citizen is that the citizen has the right to vote for elected officials, and to be elected.<ref name="Kadelbach" /> This distinction between full citizenship and other, lesser relationships goes back to antiquity. Until the 19th and 20th centuries, it was typical for only a small percentage of people who belonged to a city or state to be full citizens. In the past, most people were excluded from citizenship on the basis of gender, socioeconomic class, ethnicity, religion, and other factors. However, they held a legal relationship with their government akin to the modern concept of |
Historically, the most significant difference between a national and a citizen is that the citizen has the right to vote for elected officials, and to be elected.<ref name="Kadelbach" /> This distinction between full citizenship and other, lesser relationships goes back to antiquity. Until the 19th and 20th centuries, it was typical for only a small percentage of people who belonged to a city or state to be full citizens. In the past, most people were excluded from citizenship on the basis of gender, socioeconomic class, ethnicity, religion, and other factors. However, they held a legal relationship with their government akin to the modern concept of নাগরিকতা.<ref name="Kadelbach" /> |
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[[United States |
[[United States নাগরিকতা law]] defines some persons born in U.S. outlying possessions as [[United States নাগরিকতা law#Nationals who are not citizens|U.S. nationals but not citizens]]. [[British নাগরিকতা law]] defines six classes of British national, among which "British citizen" is one class (having the [[right of abode]] in the United Kingdom, along with some "British subjects"). Similarly, in the [[Republic of China]], commonly known as [[Taiwan]], the status of [[national without household registration]] applies to people who have [[Republic of China নাগরিকতা law|Republic of China নাগরিকতা]], but do not have an automatic entitlement to enter or reside in the [[Taiwan Area]], and do not qualify for civic rights and duties there. Under the নাগরিকতা laws of [[Mexican নাগরিকতা law|Mexico]], [[Colombian নাগরিকতা law|Colombia]], and some other Latin American countries, nationals do not become citizens until they turn 18. |
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==নাগরিকতা versus ethnicity== |
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{{Main|Ethnic nationalism}} |
{{Main|Ethnic nationalism}} |
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নাগরিকতা is sometimes used simply as an alternative word for [[ethnic group|ethnicity]] or national origin, just as some people assume that citizenship and নাগরিকতা are identical.<ref>{{cite book |author=Oommen, T. K. |title=Citizenship, নাগরিকতা, and ethnicity: reconciling competing identities |publisher=Polity Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1997 |page=6 |isbn=0-7456-1620-8 |oclc= }}</ref> In some countries, the [[cognate]] word for ''নাগরিকতা'' in local language may be understood as a synonym of ethnicity or as an identifier of cultural and family-based self-determination, rather than on relations with a state or current government. For example, some [[Kurds]] say that they have Kurdish নাগরিকতা, even though there is no Kurdish [[sovereign state]] at this time in history. |
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[[File:Russian birth certificate of Michael Lucas.JPG|thumb|A Soviet birth certificate, in which the ''nacional'nost' '' of both parents (here both [[Jews|Jewish]]) was recorded. These records were subsequently used to determine the ethnicity of the child, as specified in his internal passport.]] |
[[File:Russian birth certificate of Michael Lucas.JPG|thumb|A Soviet birth certificate, in which the ''nacional'nost' '' of both parents (here both [[Jews|Jewish]]) was recorded. These records were subsequently used to determine the ethnicity of the child, as specified in his internal passport.]] |
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In the context of former [[Soviet Union]] and former [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]], " |
In the context of former [[Soviet Union]] and former [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]], "নাগরিকতা" is often used as translation of the [[Russian language|Russian]] ''nacional'nost' '' and [[Serbo-Croatian]] ''narodnost'', which were the terms used in those countries for [[ethnic group]]s and local affiliations within the member states of the [[federation]]. In the Soviet Union, more than 100 such groups were formally recognized. Membership in these groups was identified on Soviet [[internal passport]]s, and recorded in [[census]]es in both the USSR and Yugoslavia. In the early years of the Soviet Union's existence, ethnicity was usually determined by the person's native language, and sometimes through religion or cultural factors, such as clothing.<ref name="Slezkine">Slezkine, Yuri (Summer 1994) "The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism" ''Slavic Review'' Vol. 53, No. 2, pp. 414-452</ref> Children born after the revolution were categorized according to their parents' recorded ethnicities. Many of these ethnic groups are still recognized by modern [[Russia]] and other countries. |
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Similarly, the term ''[[List of ethnic groups in China|nationalities of China]]'' refers to ethnic and cultural groups in China. Spain is one nation, made up of [[Nationalities and regions of Spain|nationalities]], which are not politically recognized as nations (state), but can be considered smaller nations within the Spanish nation. Spanish law recognises the autonomous communities of [[Andalusia]], [[Aragon]], [[Balearic Islands]], [[Canary Islands]], [[Catalonia]], [[Valencian Community|Valencia]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] and the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] as "[[Nationalities and regions of Spain|nationalities]]" (''nacionalidades''). |
Similarly, the term ''[[List of ethnic groups in China|nationalities of China]]'' refers to ethnic and cultural groups in China. Spain is one nation, made up of [[Nationalities and regions of Spain|nationalities]], which are not politically recognized as nations (state), but can be considered smaller nations within the Spanish nation. Spanish law recognises the autonomous communities of [[Andalusia]], [[Aragon]], [[Balearic Islands]], [[Canary Islands]], [[Catalonia]], [[Valencian Community|Valencia]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] and the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] as "[[Nationalities and regions of Spain|nationalities]]" (''nacionalidades''). |
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==নাগরিকতা versus national identity== |
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[[National identity]] is a person's subjective sense of belonging to one state or to one nation. A person may be a national of a state, in the sense of having a formal legal relationship with it, without subjectively or emotionally feeling a part of that state. Conversely, a person may feel that he belongs to one state without having any legal relationship to it. For example, children who were brought to the U.S. illegally when quite young and grow up there in ignorance of their immigration status often have a national identity of feeling American, despite legally being nationals of a different country. |
[[National identity]] is a person's subjective sense of belonging to one state or to one nation. A person may be a national of a state, in the sense of having a formal legal relationship with it, without subjectively or emotionally feeling a part of that state. Conversely, a person may feel that he belongs to one state without having any legal relationship to it. For example, children who were brought to the U.S. illegally when quite young and grow up there in ignorance of their immigration status often have a national identity of feeling American, despite legally being nationals of a different country. |
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==Dual |
==Dual নাগরিকতা== |
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[[Dual |
[[Dual নাগরিকতা]] is when a single person has a formal relationship with two separate, sovereign states.<ref name="TurnerIsin2003" /> This might occur, for example, if a person's parents are nationals of separate countries, and the mother's country claims all offspring of the mother's as their own nationals, but the father's country claims all offspring of the father's. |
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নাগরিকতা, with its historical origins in allegiance to a sovereign monarch, was seen originally as a permanent, inherent, unchangeable condition, and later, when a change of allegiance was permitted, as a strictly exclusive relationship, so that becoming a national of one state required rejecting the previous state.<ref name="TurnerIsin2003" /> |
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Dual |
Dual নাগরিকতা was considered a problem that caused conflict between states and sometimes imposed mutually exclusive requirements on affected people, such as simultaneously serving in two countries' military forces. Through the middle of the 20th century, many international agreements were focused on reducing the possibility of dual নাগরিকতা. Since then, many accords recognizing and regulating dual নাগরিকতা have been formed.<ref name="TurnerIsin2003" /> |
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==Statelessness== |
==Statelessness== |
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| ৬২ নং লাইন: | ৬২ নং লাইন: | ||
* ''[[jus soli]]'' |
* ''[[jus soli]]'' |
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* [[List of adjectival and demonymic forms for countries and nations]] |
* [[List of adjectival and demonymic forms for countries and nations]] |
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*[[Nottebohm case|Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala)]], a 1955 case that is cited for its definitions of |
*[[Nottebohm case|Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala)]], a 1955 case that is cited for its definitions of নাগরিকতা |
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* [[Second-class citizen]] |
* [[Second-class citizen]] |
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| ৬৯ নং লাইন: | ৬৯ নং লাইন: | ||
==অতিরিক্ত পড়ুন== |
==অতিরিক্ত পড়ুন== |
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* White, Philip L. (2006). [http://www. |
* White, Philip L. (2006). [http://www.নাগরিকতাinworldhistory.net/ch1.html What is a নাগরিকতা?], "Globalization and the Mythology of the Nation State," in A.G.Hopkins, ed. ''Global History: Interactions Between the Universal and the Local'' Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 257–284 এর ভিত্তিতে |
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* Grossman, Andrew. [http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/law/elj/lgd/2001_1/grossman/ ''Gender and National Inclusion''] |
* Grossman, Andrew. [http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/law/elj/lgd/2001_1/grossman/ ''Gender and National Inclusion''] |
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* [http://www.panarchy.org/acton/ |
* [http://www.panarchy.org/acton/নাগরিকতা.html Lord Acton, নাগরিকতা] (1862) |
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{{সারবজনিন মানব অধিকার আইন}} |
{{সারবজনিন মানব অধিকার আইন}} |
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১২:০২, ১০ ফেব্রুয়ারি ২০১৭ তারিখে সংশোধিত সংস্করণ
টেমপ্লেট:Legal status টেমপ্লেট:Conflict of laws
জাতীয়তা একজন ব্যাক্তি এবং রাষ্ট্র এর মধ্যে [১] আইন গত সম্পর্ক। জাতীয়তা রাষ্ট্রকে বাক্তির উপর আইনগত অধিকার এনে দেয় এবং ব্যাক্তিকে এনে দেয় রাষ্ট্রের সুরক্ষা। এসব অধিকার এবং দায়িত্ব কি তার তারতম্য ঘটে রাষ্ট্র থেকে রাষ্ট্রে।[২]
প্রথা এবং আন্তর্জাতিক রীতি অনুযায়ী, এটি প্রত্যেক রাষ্ট্রের অধিকার যা নিরধারন করে কারা সেই রাষ্ট্রের জাতি হবে ।[৩] এই নির্দেশক গুলো জাতীয়তা আইনের অংশ. কিছু ক্ষেত্রে জাতীয়তার নির্দেশক গুলোও নিয়ন্ত্রিত হয় সরকারী আন্তর্জাতিক আইন দারা— উধাহরনস্বরূপ,রাষ্ট্রহীনতার উপর চুক্তিপত্র এবং জাতীয়তার বিষয়ক ইউরোপীয় সম্মেলন,(European Convention on নাগরিকতা)।
জাতীয়তা, নাগরিকতা থেকে কারিগরি এবং আইনগত ভাবে পৃথক, যা বাক্তি এবং দেশের মধ্যে পৃথক ধরনের আইনগত সম্পর্ক।জাতীয়তা বিশেষ্য পদটি উভয় নাগরিক এবং অনাগরিককে বোঝাতে পারে । নাগরিকের সবচেয়ে সাধারন পার্থক্যকারি বৈশিষ্ট্য হচ্ছে নাগরিক রাষ্ট্রের রাজনৈতিক জীবনে অনশগ্রহন করতে পারে, যেমন ভোট দেয়ার মাধ্যমে অথবা নিরবাচনে প্রতিযোগিতা করে. যাইহোক, আধুনিক দেশে সকল জাতিই রাষ্ট্রের নাগরিক এবং পূর্ণ নাগরিকরা রাষ্ট্রের জাতি। [১][৪]
ইংরেজি এবং কিছু অন্য ভাষাতে,জাতীয়তা শব্দটিকে ব্যাবহার করা হয় জাতিগত গোষ্ঠী নির্দেশ করার জন্য। (মানুষের একটি দল যারা একই জাতিয় পরিচিতি, ভাষা, সংস্কৃতি, ইতিহাস এবং আরও অনেক কিছু ভাগাভাগি করে। জাতীয়তার এই সংজ্ঞাটি রাজনৈতিক সীমানা বা পাসপোর্ট মালিকানার ভিত্তিতে দেয়া হয় নি এবং যেসব জাতির স্বাধীন রাষ্ট্র নেই (যেমন স্কট, ওয়েলস, ইংলিশ, কুরদ, তামিল, শিখ ইত্যাদি ) তাদেরকেউ অন্তর্ভুক্ত করে। [তথ্যসূত্র প্রয়োজন]
যারা বড় কোন সরকার থেকে স্বায়ত্তশাসন এর ক্ষমতা অর্জন করেছে তাদেরকেউ নাগরিক বলা যেতে পারে।
আন্তর্জাতিক আইন
আন্তর্জাতিক আইনে জাতীয়তা হচ্ছে একটি অবস্থা অথবা সম্পর্ক যা একটি জাতিকে পৃথক একটি জাতি থেকে রক্ষা করার অধিকার প্রদান করে।[৪] কূটনীতিক এবং অধিনায়কীয় সুরক্ষা নির্ভর করে ব্যাক্তি এবং রাষ্ট্রের এই সম্পর্কের উপর।[৪] একজন ব্যাক্তির নাগরিকতার এই অবস্থা একটি দেশের আইনের সংঘাতের সমস্যার সমাধান করে।[৫]
নাগরিকতা এমন একটি অবস্থা যা একটি জাতিকে কোন ব্যাক্তি উপর অধিকার প্রদান ঈবং বিধি নিষেধ প্রদান করে।[৪] In most cases, no rights or obligations are automatically attached to this status, although the status is a necessary precondition for any rights and obligations created by the state.[৫]
Within the broad limits imposed by few treaties and international law, states may freely define who their nationals are and are not.[৪] However, since the Nottebohm case, other states are only required to respect their claim to protect an alleged national if the নাগরিকতা is based on a true social bond.[৪] In the case of dual নাগরিকতা, states may determine the most effective নাগরিকতা for a person, to determine which state's laws are most relevant.[৫] There are also limits on removing a person's status as a national. Article 15 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that "Everyone has the right to a নাগরিকতা," and "No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his নাগরিকতা nor denied the right to change his নাগরিকতা."
National law
Nationals normally have the right to enter or return to the country they belong to. Passports are issued to nationals of a state, rather than only to citizens, because the passport is the travel document used to enter the country. However, nationals may not have the right of abode (the right to live permanently) in the countries that grant them passports.
নাগরিকতা versus citizenship
নাগরিকতা is legally a distinct concept from citizenship. Conceptually, citizenship is focused on the internal political life of the state and নাগরিকতা is a matter of international dealings.[৬]
In the modern era, the concept of full citizenship encompasses not only active political rights, but full civil rights and social rights.[৪] নাগরিকতা is a necessary but not sufficient condition to exercise full political rights within a state or other polity.[১] নাগরিকতা is required for full citizenship, and some people have নাগরিকতা without having full citizenship. A person who is denied full rights is commonly called a second-class citizen.
Historically, the most significant difference between a national and a citizen is that the citizen has the right to vote for elected officials, and to be elected.[৪] This distinction between full citizenship and other, lesser relationships goes back to antiquity. Until the 19th and 20th centuries, it was typical for only a small percentage of people who belonged to a city or state to be full citizens. In the past, most people were excluded from citizenship on the basis of gender, socioeconomic class, ethnicity, religion, and other factors. However, they held a legal relationship with their government akin to the modern concept of নাগরিকতা.[৪]
United States নাগরিকতা law defines some persons born in U.S. outlying possessions as U.S. nationals but not citizens. British নাগরিকতা law defines six classes of British national, among which "British citizen" is one class (having the right of abode in the United Kingdom, along with some "British subjects"). Similarly, in the Republic of China, commonly known as Taiwan, the status of national without household registration applies to people who have Republic of China নাগরিকতা, but do not have an automatic entitlement to enter or reside in the Taiwan Area, and do not qualify for civic rights and duties there. Under the নাগরিকতা laws of Mexico, Colombia, and some other Latin American countries, nationals do not become citizens until they turn 18.
নাগরিকতা versus ethnicity
নাগরিকতা is sometimes used simply as an alternative word for ethnicity or national origin, just as some people assume that citizenship and নাগরিকতা are identical.[৭] In some countries, the cognate word for নাগরিকতা in local language may be understood as a synonym of ethnicity or as an identifier of cultural and family-based self-determination, rather than on relations with a state or current government. For example, some Kurds say that they have Kurdish নাগরিকতা, even though there is no Kurdish sovereign state at this time in history.
In the context of former Soviet Union and former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, "নাগরিকতা" is often used as translation of the Russian nacional'nost' and Serbo-Croatian narodnost, which were the terms used in those countries for ethnic groups and local affiliations within the member states of the federation. In the Soviet Union, more than 100 such groups were formally recognized. Membership in these groups was identified on Soviet internal passports, and recorded in censuses in both the USSR and Yugoslavia. In the early years of the Soviet Union's existence, ethnicity was usually determined by the person's native language, and sometimes through religion or cultural factors, such as clothing.[৮] Children born after the revolution were categorized according to their parents' recorded ethnicities. Many of these ethnic groups are still recognized by modern Russia and other countries.
Similarly, the term nationalities of China refers to ethnic and cultural groups in China. Spain is one nation, made up of nationalities, which are not politically recognized as nations (state), but can be considered smaller nations within the Spanish nation. Spanish law recognises the autonomous communities of Andalusia, Aragon, Balearic Islands, Canary Islands, Catalonia, Valencia, Galicia and the Basque Country as "nationalities" (nacionalidades).
নাগরিকতা versus national identity
National identity is a person's subjective sense of belonging to one state or to one nation. A person may be a national of a state, in the sense of having a formal legal relationship with it, without subjectively or emotionally feeling a part of that state. Conversely, a person may feel that he belongs to one state without having any legal relationship to it. For example, children who were brought to the U.S. illegally when quite young and grow up there in ignorance of their immigration status often have a national identity of feeling American, despite legally being nationals of a different country.
Dual নাগরিকতা
Dual নাগরিকতা is when a single person has a formal relationship with two separate, sovereign states.[৬] This might occur, for example, if a person's parents are nationals of separate countries, and the mother's country claims all offspring of the mother's as their own nationals, but the father's country claims all offspring of the father's.
নাগরিকতা, with its historical origins in allegiance to a sovereign monarch, was seen originally as a permanent, inherent, unchangeable condition, and later, when a change of allegiance was permitted, as a strictly exclusive relationship, so that becoming a national of one state required rejecting the previous state.[৬]
Dual নাগরিকতা was considered a problem that caused conflict between states and sometimes imposed mutually exclusive requirements on affected people, such as simultaneously serving in two countries' military forces. Through the middle of the 20th century, many international agreements were focused on reducing the possibility of dual নাগরিকতা. Since then, many accords recognizing and regulating dual নাগরিকতা have been formed.[৬]
Statelessness
Statelessness is the condition in which an individual has no formal or protective relationship with any state. This might occur, for example, if a person's parents are nationals of separate countries, and the mother's country rejects all offspring of mothers married to foreign fathers, but the father's country rejects all offspring born to foreign mothers. Although this person may have an emotional national identity, he or she may not legally be the national of any state.
See also
- Blood quantum laws
- Demonym
- Imagined communities
- Intersectionality
- jus sanguinis
- jus soli
- List of adjectival and demonymic forms for countries and nations
- Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala), a 1955 case that is cited for its definitions of নাগরিকতা
- Second-class citizen
References
- ↑ ক খ গ Vonk, Olivier (মার্চ ১৯, ২০১২)। Dual নাগরিকতা in the European Union: A Study on Changing Norms in Public and Private International Law and in the Municipal Laws of Four EU Member States। Martinus Nijhoff Publishers। পৃষ্ঠা 19–20। আইএসবিএন 90-04-22720-2।
- ↑ Weis, Paul. নাগরিকতা and Statelessness in International Law. BRILL; 1979 [cited 19 August 2012]. ISBN 9789028603295. p. 29–61.
- ↑ Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of নাগরিকতা Laws. The Hague, 12 April 1930. Full text. Article 1, "It is for each State to determine under its own law who are its nationals...".
- ↑ ক খ গ ঘ ঙ চ ছ জ ঝ Kadelbach, Stefan (২০০৭)। "Part V: Citizenship Rights in Europe"। Ehlers, Dirk। European Fundamental Rights and Freedoms। Berlin: De Gruyter Recht। পৃষ্ঠা 547–548। আইএসবিএন 9783110971965।
- ↑ ক খ গ von Bogdandy, Armin; Bast, Jürgen, সম্পাদকগণ (২০০৯)। Principles of European Constitutional Law. (2nd সংস্করণ)। Oxford: Hart Pub.। পৃষ্ঠা 449–451। আইএসবিএন 9781847315502।
- ↑ ক খ গ ঘ Turner, Bryan S; Isin, Engin F. Handbook of Citizenship Studies. SAGE; 2003-01-29. ISBN 9780761968580. p. 278–279.
- ↑ Oommen, T. K. (১৯৯৭)। Citizenship, নাগরিকতা, and ethnicity: reconciling competing identities। Cambridge, UK: Polity Press। পৃষ্ঠা 6। আইএসবিএন 0-7456-1620-8।
- ↑ Slezkine, Yuri (Summer 1994) "The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism" Slavic Review Vol. 53, No. 2, pp. 414-452
অতিরিক্ত পড়ুন
- White, Philip L. (2006). What is a নাগরিকতা?, "Globalization and the Mythology of the Nation State," in A.G.Hopkins, ed. Global History: Interactions Between the Universal and the Local Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 257–284 এর ভিত্তিতে
- Grossman, Andrew. Gender and National Inclusion
- Lord Acton, নাগরিকতা (1862)
টেমপ্লেট:সারবজনিন মানব অধিকার আইন টেমপ্লেট:নিরদিস্ত মানব অধিকার টেমপ্লেট:নৃগোষ্ঠীটা